The term "Molotov cocktail" originated during the Winter War (1939–1940) between the Soviet Union and Finland. Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov claimed that Soviet air raids over Finland were humanitarian food drops, rather than attacks, and the Finns sarcastically dubbed the Soviet bombs "Molotov bread baskets." As an improvised response to Soviet tanks, Finnish soldiers crafted makeshift incendiary devices from bottles filled with flammable liquids, lighting them and throwing them at enemy armor. These weapons were named "Molotov cocktails" to mock Molotov’s propaganda, suggesting that if the Soviets provided the bread, the Finns would provide the drinks.
Early Use in the Winter War
The Finnish forces were vastly outnumbered and outgunned by the Soviet Red Army during the Winter War. Lacking sufficient anti-tank weaponry, they turned to creative solutions. They filled glass bottles with a mixture of gasoline or kerosene, sometimes adding chemicals like tar to make the liquid stick to the target. When a Molotov cocktail was thrown at a tank, it shattered on impact, spreading fire over the surface of the vehicle. The flames could seep into ventilation shafts or engine compartments, disabling the tank or forcing the crew to abandon it. The simplicity and effectiveness of this weapon made it an essential tool for the underdog Finnish fighters.
Spanish Civil War Precedent
Though the name "Molotov cocktail" became widely known after the Winter War, the concept of using incendiary bottles as weapons dates back earlier, to the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). During this conflict, both sides used gasoline-filled bottles to attack tanks and armored vehicles. While these early versions lacked the sarcastic moniker, they were essentially the same tool: a cheap, improvised weapon that allowed infantry to fight back against superior armor. The Spanish Civil War set the stage for future conflicts, demonstrating how resourceful fighters could turn everyday objects into effective instruments of war.
World War II and Widespread Adoption
During World War II, the use of Molotov cocktails spread far beyond Finland. British forces prepared for a potential German invasion by producing millions of Molotov cocktails, stockpiling them for use by local defense forces. In the Soviet Union, soldiers used these incendiary devices to target German tanks during the initial phases of Operation Barbarossa. The simplicity of the Molotov cocktail made it ideal for resistance movements and irregular forces. Whether in occupied France, the Balkans, or North Africa, insurgents and guerrilla fighters adopted this weapon as a means of sabotaging enemy armor or fortifications, turning the Molotov cocktail into a symbol of resistance.
Molotov Cocktails in Urban Warfare
Molotov cocktails have proven particularly effective in urban warfare, where the dense, built-up environment favors guerrilla tactics. During the Battle of Stalingrad, both Soviet defenders and German invaders used Molotov cocktails in street fighting. The close quarters of the city’s ruins allowed infantry to approach tanks and other armored vehicles more easily, increasing the effectiveness of these improvised weapons. Likewise, Molotov cocktails were used against fortified positions, with the fire forcing defenders out of buildings or preventing counterattacks. The confined spaces of urban environments, where traditional anti-tank weapons could be cumbersome, made the Molotov cocktail an enduring tool of asymmetric warfare.
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956
One of the most famous post-World War II uses of Molotov cocktails occurred during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Hungarian freedom fighters, armed with little more than rifles and Molotov cocktails, fought against the Soviet tanks sent to crush the uprising. In the narrow streets of Budapest, insurgents used Molotov cocktails to disable Soviet tanks by attacking their weak points, such as the engine or the fuel tank. Although the uprising was eventually crushed, the widespread use of Molotov cocktails during the revolution left a lasting impression on how these improvised weapons could be used in popular resistance movements against much stronger military forces.
The Troubles in Northern Ireland
Molotov cocktails became a common tool in the hands of protesters and insurgents during "The Troubles" in Northern Ireland, a conflict that spanned from the late 1960s to the 1990s. Both Catholic and Protestant factions used Molotov cocktails in street clashes and riots, particularly against the police and British military forces. The homemade firebombs were used to set barricades alight, target vehicles, and create confusion among enemy ranks. In many cases, their psychological impact was as significant as their physical damage, as the sight of flames and the potential for injury created a powerful deterrent against advancing forces.
The Arab Spring Uprisings
The Arab Spring uprisings of the early 2010s saw Molotov cocktails return to prominence in countries like Egypt, Tunisia, and Syria. In Cairo, during the 2011 Egyptian revolution, protesters hurled Molotov cocktails at police forces to push back government crackdowns. These makeshift incendiary devices became a hallmark of street-level defiance against oppressive regimes. The widespread availability of the materials needed to make Molotov cocktails—glass bottles, gasoline, and cloth—meant that they could be rapidly assembled and deployed in the chaotic conditions of mass protests and street battles.
Use by Environmental Activists
Molotov cocktails have also been used by radical environmental groups in protest against industrial activities or government policies. For example, in the 1990s and early 2000s, eco-activists in Europe and North America occasionally resorted to using Molotov cocktails to sabotage logging equipment, construction sites, or corporate properties they deemed harmful to the environment. While not a widespread tactic, the use of Molotov cocktails in this context demonstrates how the weapon can cross the boundaries of conventional warfare and protest, evolving into a tool for direct action in diverse movements.
The Hong Kong Protests of 2019
During the 2019–2020 Hong Kong protests, Molotov cocktails were used extensively by pro-democracy demonstrators. In response to police crackdowns, protesters hurled these incendiary devices at government buildings, police vehicles, and riot squads. They were part of a broader arsenal of makeshift weapons that included slingshots, bows and arrows, and barricades. The use of Molotov cocktails in Hong Kong underscored their continuing relevance in modern protest movements, where asymmetrical power dynamics force demonstrators to rely on improvised tools to challenge state authority.
The Ukraine Conflict
In the ongoing conflict between Ukraine and Russia, Molotov cocktails have once again made an appearance, particularly in the hands of Ukrainian civilians and militia groups. Early in the 2022 Russian invasion, Ukrainian citizens were encouraged by the government to make Molotov cocktails to help resist Russian advances. Videos circulated online showing civilians assembling the firebombs in preparation for defending their towns and cities. The Molotov cocktail, over 80 years after its first use in Finland, remains a potent symbol of resistance against overwhelming military force, showing how a simple, improvised weapon can still be relevant in modern warfare.